Figure 4. A snapshot, in time, of two complex numbers whose exponents, and thus their phase angles, change with time. The notion of negative frequency is often troubling to engineers who've spent so ...

Modern oscilloscopes capture, view, measure, and analyze complex RF signals in the time, frequency, and modulation domains. Time-domain analysis, the original oscilloscope function, allows users to ...

If you characterize high-speed digital signals, you're surely familiar with the idea of separating jitter into components such as random jitter (RJ), deterministic jitter (DJ), periodic jitter (PJ), ...

Lock-in amplifiers were invented in the 1930s [1, 2, 3] and commercialized [4] in the mid 20 th century as electrical instruments that are capable of extracting signal amplitudes and phases in ...